Methods and groups

ABSTRACT

A method, for the identification of bacterial isolates suitable for use in bacteriotherapy, the method comprising: (i) preparing a suspension of material collected from a host harbouring microbiota; (ii) addition of an activator of bacterial spores sufficient to allow growth of bacteria from spores present in the suspension; (iii) culturing the suspension; and (iv) identification of at least one bacterial species within the culture.

This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/402,033, which was filed on Nov. 18, 2014, which is U.S. national stage application of International Application No. PCT/GB2013/05198, which was filed on May 20, 2013 with the title “METHODS AND GROUPS,” which claims priority to GB 1211961.6 filed Jul. 5, 2012 and GB 1208845.6 filed May 18, 2012, each of which is incorporated by reference in their entireties for all purposes.

INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF SEQUENCE LISTING

The contents of the text file named “4294_0000002_st25.txt”, which was created on Oct. 22, 2018 and is 13,837 bytes in size, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The invention relates to methods and groups of bacterial isolates relevant to bacteriotherapy. In particular, the invention relates to methods for identifying bacterial isolates suitable for bacteriotherapy, to bacterial isolates identified by such methods and to the use of such bacterial isolates in bacteriotherapy.

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile, an anaerobic, Gram-positive bacterium, is a major cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and challenges healthcare infection control measures by producing highly infectious and resistant spores. Antibiotic treatment, advanced age and hospitalization are the major risk factors for C. difficile colonization, leading to a spectrum of outcomes ranging from asymptomatic carriage, severe diarrhea, pseudomembranous colitis or even death. Current first line treatments for C. difficile disease are vancomycin or metronidazole, although in 20-35% of these cases recurrent disease (relapse or re-infection) follows the cessation of antibiotic therapy. Recurrent C. difficile disease is associated with a pathological imbalance within the resident intestinal microbial community, or “dysbiosis”, so therapies that restore a healthy microbiota are viewed as promising alternatives. Recurrent Clostridium difficile disease in humans is associated with a pathological imbalance within the resident intestinal microbiota, referred to as dysbiosis.

Fecal bacteriotherapy, the administration of homogenized feces from a healthy donor, has been investigated as an alternative therapy for recurrent C. difficile disease in humans. However, the mechanism of bacteriotherapy using fecal flora and specific probiotic mix in the feces which are of use in bacteriotherapy has so far been unclear.

SUMMARY

In a first aspect, the invention provides a method, for the identification of bacterial isolates suitable for use in bacteriotherapy, the method comprising:

(i) preparing a suspension of material collected from a host harbouring microbiota;

(ii) addition of an activator of bacterial spores sufficient to allow growth of bacteria from spores present in the suspension;

(iii) culturing the suspension; and

(iv) identification of at least one bacterial isolate within the culture

In a second aspect, the invention provides method for preparing fecal material suitable for bacteriotherapy or a method for identification of bacterial isolates suitable for use in bacteriotherapy the method comprising preparing a suspension of fecal material followed by incubation of the suspension in a standing culture under anaerobic or aerobic conditions.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method for preparing material suitable for use in bacteriotherapy, the method comprising:

(i) preparing a suspension of fecal material;

(ii) addition of an activator of bacterial spores sufficient to allow growth of bacteria from spores present in the suspension; and

(iii) culturing the suspension.

In one aspect, the invention provides a group of bacterial isolates suitable for bacteriotherapy obtainable or identifiable according to any of the methods described above and in the rest of this application.

In another aspect, the invention provides a group of bacterial isolates obtainable or identifiable according to the method of any previous aspect of the invention for use in bacteriotherapy.

In another aspect, the invention provides the use of a group of bacterial isolates obtainable or identifiable according to the method of any previous aspect of the invention in the manufacture of a medicament for providing bacteriotherapy.

In another aspect, the invention provides cultured fecal material for use in bacteriotherapy, and/or for identification of bacterial strains suitable for use in bacteriotherapy, wherein the bacteriotherapy is to facilitate repopulation of the gut and/or prevention or treatment of diseases associated with infections or the microbiota, or diseases related thereto, and/or prevention of transmission of infection. In one embodiment the infection is a bacterial infection. In one embodiment the infection is a viral infection. In one embodiment the infection is C. difficile infection.

In another aspect, the invention provides a subset of bacteria obtainable or identifiable from fecal material for use in facilitating repopulation of the gut and/or in prevention or treatment of bacterial or viral infections, dysfunction associated with the microbiota or diseases related thereto and/or in prevention of transmission of bacterial or viral infection, wherein the subset comprises 3 to 9, optionally no more than 6, isolates of bacteria.

In another aspect, the invention provides use of 3 to 9, optionally no more 6, bacterial isolates in the preparation of a medicament to facilitate repopulation of the gut and/or in prevention or treatment of bacterial or viral infections, dysfunction associated with the microbiota or diseases related thereto and/or in prevention of transmission of bacterial or viral infection.

In another aspect, the invention provides a composition comprising or consisting essentially of a group of bacterial isolates according to any of the previous aspects. The composition is suitable for providing bacteriotherapy.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of providing bacteriotherapy, the method comprising delivering to a human or non-human animal a group of bacterial isolates according to any of the previous aspects.

The preferred features may be combined as appropriate, as would be apparent to a skilled person, and may be combined with any of the aspects of the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments of the invention will be described, by way of example, with reference to the following drawings, in which:

FIGS. 1A-1C. Epidemic C. difficile 027/BI induces a persisting supershedder state with enhanced transmissibility compared to other virulent variants.

FIGS. 2A-2C. Fecal bacteriotherapy resolves relapsing C. difficile 027/BI-7 disease and host contagiousness.

FIGS. 3A-3C. Effective bacteriotherapy re-establishes a healthy, diverse microbiota profile in epidemic C. difficile 027/BI supershedder mice.

FIG. 4. Whole genome (Maximum likelihood) phylogeny of intestinal bacteria demonstrating the phylogenetic placement of protective bacteriotherapy bacteria (MixB) and the dominant members of the supershedder microbiota.

FIG. 5. Toxin A production by C. difficile 027/BI-7, 012/630 and 017/M68.

FIG. 6. C. difficile supershedders are highly contagious.

FIGS. 7A-7B. Distinct intestinal microbiota community structures from healthy/naïve mice (n=17), clindamycin supershedders (C. difficile 027/BI-7 infected mice on clindamycin; n=10) and persisting supershedders (C. difficile 027/BI-7 infected mice not on clindamycin; n=17).

FIG. 8. Opportunistic pathogens routinely cultured from the feces of epidemic C. difficile 027/BI supershedder mice.

FIGS. 9A-9F. Impact of various oral treatments on epidemic C. difficile 027/BI supershedder state in mice.

FIGS. 10A-10C. Fecal bacteriotherapy suppresses C. difficile intestinal colonization and diversifies the intestinal bacterial community of supershedder mice.

FIGS. 11A-11B. Simplified fecal derivatives enriched for easily culturable components effectively suppress the epidemic C. difficile supershedder 027/BI state in mice.

FIG. 12. Rarefaction curves demonstrating observed bacterial diversity of feces from healthy, naïve mice and its serially passaged derivatives.

FIGS. 13A-13C. Effective bacteriotherapy re-establishes a healthy, diverse microbiota profile in epidemic C. difficile 027/BI supershedder.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The invention provides methods for identification of desirable bacterial isolates suitable for bacteriotherapy. The invention also provides methods for preparing fecal material suitable for bacteriotherapy.

In one aspect the method may comprise the steps of preparing a suspension of material collected from a host harbouring microbiota, adding an activator of bacterial spores sufficient to allow growth of bacteria from spores present in the suspension and culturing the suspension. The suspension may be cultured under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. The cultured suspension may be incubated in a standing culture under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. In one embodiment, the standing culture is under aerobic conditions.

In one aspect, the method may comprise the steps of preparing a suspension of material followed by incubation of the suspension in a standing culture under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. In one embodiment, the standing culture is under aerobic conditions. An activator of bacterial spores sufficient to allow growth of bacteria from spores may be added to the suspension before the suspension is incubated in a standing culture under aerobic conditions.

The invention also provides methods for identification of bacterial strains suitable for use in bacteriotherapy comprising the steps of any of the previous aspects and comprising the additional step of identification of at least one, preferably a group of, bacterial isolates within the culture.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method for preparing material comprising desirable bacterial isolates, the method comprising preparing a suspension of material collected from a host harbouring microbiota, such as fecal material, by diluting the material in sterile PBS; plating on nutrient agar plates; adding anaerobic culture media and an activator of bacterial spores sufficient to allow growth of bacteria from spores present in the suspension and growing either aerobically or anaerobically at a suitable temperature, such as about 37° C., for 24-72 hours. Distinct colony types may be isolated and culture purified.

In one embodiment, the material being cultured is serially passaged and the material prepared after 1st or 2nd passage is selected for use in the methods according to the invention. The material collected from a host harbouring microbiota, such as healthy feces, may be passaged overnight in nutrient broth at a suitable temperature, such as about 37° C., to reduce the bacterial community complexity and to enrich for readily culturable bacteria.

In one embodiment, the methods of preparation of identification according to the invention includes incubation of the suspension in a standing culture under aerobic conditions to provide the microbes with an oxygen gradient.

In one embodiment, the culture media used during culturing of the suspension in the methods of preparation of identification according to the invention may be anaerobic culture media.

In one embodiment bacterial isolates according to any previous aspect can be identified from such prepared material by isolating genomic DNA from the distinct colonies and species-level profiling of the intestinal microbiota. The species level profiling may be sequencing specific genes, such as the 16S rRNA gene, and comparing to the GenBank and RDP databases to identify the bacterial species. Whole genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of intestinal bacteria can also be carried out to identify common genes between the isolates of interest. The species diversity in each sample may be measured by calculating the Shannon Diversity Index (such as described in P. D. Schloss et al. referenced in the examples section).

In one aspect the bacterial isolate comprises a DNA sequence that encodes 16S rRNA which is one of the following 6 sequences, or which has homology or identity to one of the following 6 sequences, suitably at a level of greater than 85%, such as greater than 86%, greater than 87%, greater than 88%, greater than 89%, greater than 90%, greater than 91%, greater than 92%, greater than 93%, greater than 94%, greater than 95%, greater than 96%, greater than 97%, greater than 98%, greater than 99% or more, across the sequence.

In addition the present invention relates to a bacterial isolate per se comprising a DNA sequence that encodes 16S rRNA having the sequence of sequence SEQ ID Nos. 13, 14 or 18 below.

1318 bp (97% to Adlercreutzia equolifaciens) SEQ ID No.: 13 ACGGGTGAGT AACACGTGAC CAACCTGCCC CGCGCTCCGG GACACCGCTG GAAACGGCGG CTAATACCGG ATACTCCGGG AGGGCCCCAT GGCCCTGCCG GGAAAGCCGA GACGGCGCGG GATGGGGTCG CGGCCCATTA GGTAGACGGC GGGGTAACGG CCCACCGTGC CCGCGATGGG TAGCCGGACT GAGAGGTCGA CCGGCCACAT TGGGACTGAG ATACGGCCCA GACTCCTACG GGAGGCAGCA GTGGGGAATT TTGCGCAATG GGGGGAACCC TGACGCAGCA ACGCCGCGTG CGGGACGAAG GCCCTCGGGT TGTAAACCGC TTTCAGCAGG GAAGATCCAA GACGGTACCT GCAGAAGAAG CTCCGGCTAA CTACGTGCCA GCAGCCGCGG TAATACGTAG GGGGCGAGCG TTATCCGGAT TCATTGGGCG TAAAGCGCGC GTAGGCGGCC GCCTAAGCGG GACCTCTAAC CCCGGGGCTC AACCCCGGGC CGGGTCCCGG ACTGGGCGGC TCGAGTGCGG TAGAGGAGAG CGGAATTCCC GGTGTAGCGG TGGAATGCGC AGATATCGGG AAGAACACCG ATGGCGAAGG CAGCTCTCTG GGCCGTCACT GACGCTGAGG CGCGAAAGCT GGGGGAGCGA ACAGGATTAG ATACCCTGGT AGTCCCAGCC GTAAACGATG GGCGCTAGGT GTGGGGGGAC GATCCCTCCG TGCCGCAGCC AACGCATTAA GCGCCCCGCC TGGGGAGTAC GGCCGCAAGG CTAAAACTCA AAGGAATTGA CGGGGGCCCG CACAAGCAGC GGAGCATGTG GCTTAATTCG AAGCAACGCG AAGAACCTTA CCAGGGCTTG ACATGCCGAT GAAGCCGGGG AGACCCGGTG GCCGAGAGGA GTCGGCGCAG GTGGTGCATG GCTGTCGTCA GCTCGTGTCG TGAGATGTTG GGTTAAGTCC CGCAACGAGC GCAACCCCCG CCCCGTGTTG CCAGCATTCA GTTGGGGACT CGCGGGGGAC TGCCGGCGTC AAGCCGGAGG AAGGTGGGGA CGACGTCAAG TCATCATGCC CCTTATGCCC TGGGCTGCAC ACGTGCTACA ATGGCCGGTA CAGAGGGTTG CCACCCCGCG AGGGGGAGCG GATCCCGGAA AGCCGGTCCC AGTTCGGATC GCAGGCTGCA ACCCGCCTGC GTGAAGCCGG AGTTGCTAGT AATCGCGGAT CAGCACGCCG CGGTGAATAC GTTCCCGGGC CTTGTACACA CCGCCCGTCA CACCACCCGA GTCGTCTGCA CCCGAAGCCG CCGGCCGAAC CCCCGGGG 1292 bp (98% to Anaerostipes caccae) SEQ ID No.: 14 AGTGGCGGAC GGGTGAGTAA CGCGTGGGGA ACCTGCCCTA TACAGGGGGA TAACAGCTGG AAACGGCTGC TAATACCGCA TAAGCGCACA GAATCGCATG ATTCGGTGTG AAAAGCTCCG GCAGTATAGG ATGGTCCCGC GTCTGATTAG CTGGTTGGCG GGGTAACGGC CCACCAAGGC GACGATCAGT AGCCGGCTTG AGAGAGTGGA CGGCCACATT GGGACTGAGA CACGGCCCAA ACTCCTACGG GAGGCAGCAG TGGGGAATAT TGCACAATGG GGGAAACCCT GATGCAGCGA CGCCGCGTGA GTGAAGAAGT ATTTCGGTAT GTAAAGCTCT ATCAGCAGGG AAGAAAAAAG ACGGTACCTG ACTAAGAAGC CCCGGCTAAC TACGTGCCAG CAGCCGCGGT AATACGTAGG GGGCAAGCGT TATCCGGAAT TACTGGGTGT AAAGGGTGCG TAGGTGGCAT GGTAAGTCAG AAGTGAAAGC CCGGGGCTTA ACCCCGGGAC TGCTTTTGAA ACTGTCATGC TGGAGTGCAG GAGAGGTAAG CGGAATTCCT AGTGTAGCGG TGAAATGCGT AGATATTAGG AGGAACACCA GTGGCGAAGG CGGCTTACTG GACTGTCACT GACACTGATG CACGAAAGCG TGGGGAGCAA ACAGGATTAG ATACCCTGGT AGTCCACGCC GTAAACGATG AATACTAGGT GTCGGGGCCG TAGAGGCTTC GGTGCCGCAG CAAACGCAGT AAGTATTCCA CCTGGGGAGT ACGTTCGCAA GAATGAAACT CAAAGGAATT GACGGGGACC CGCACAAGCG GTGGAGCATG TGGTTTAATT CGAAGCAACG CGAAGAACCT TACCTGGTCT TGACATCTAA CTGACCGGTT CGTAATGGGA CCTTTCCTTC GGGACAGTTA AGACAGGTGG TGCATGGTTG TCGTCAGCTC GTGTCGTGAG ATGTTGGGTT AAGTCCCGCA ACGAGCGCAA CCCCTATCTT TAGTAGCCAG CATATAAGGT GGGCACTCTA GAGAGACTGC CAGGGATAAC CTGGAGGAAG GTGGGGACGA CGTCAAATCA TCATGCCCCT TATGGCCAGG GCTACACACG TGCTACAATG GCGTAAACAA AGGGAAGCGA AGTCGTGAGG CGAAGCAAAT CCCAGAAATA ACGTCTCAGT TCGGATTGTA GTCTGCAACT CGACTACATG AAGCTGGAAT CGCTAGTAAT CGTGAATCAG AATGTCACGG TGAATACGTT CCCGGGTCTT GTACACACCG CCCGTCACAC CA [1324 bp, 100% to Staphylococcus warneri] SEQ ID No.: 15 AGCGGCGGAC GGGTGAGTAA CACGTGGATA ACCTACCTAT AAGACTGGGA TAACTTCGGG AAACCGGAGC TAATACCGGA TAACATATTG AACCGCATGG TTCAATAGTG AAAGGCGGCT TTGCTGTCAC TTATAGATGG ATCCGCGCCG TATTAGCTAG TTGGTAAGGT AACGGCTTAC CAAGGCAACG ATACGTAGCC GACCTGAGAG GGTGATCGGC CACACTGGAA CTGAGACACG GTCCAGACTC CTACGGGAGG CAGCAGTAGG GAATCTTCCG CAATGGGCGA AAGCCTGACG GAGCAACGCC GCGTGAGTGA TGAAGGTCTT CGGATCGTAA AACTCTGTTA TCAGGGAAGA ACAAATGTGT AAGTAACTGT GCACATCTTG ACGGTACCTG ATCAGAAAGC CACGGCTAAC TACGTGCCAG CAGCCGCGGT AATACGTAGG TGGCAAGCGT TATCCGGAAT TATTGGGCGT AAAGCGCGCG TAGGCGGTTT TTTAAGTCTG ATGTGAAAGC CCACGGCTCA ACCGTGGAGG GTCATTGGAA ACTGGAAAAC TTGAGTGCAG AAGAGGAAAG TGGAATTCCA TGTGTAGCGG TGAAATGCGC AGAGATATGG AGGAACACCA GTGGCGAAGG CGACTTTCTG GTCTGTAACT GACGCTGATG TGCGAAAGCG TGGGGATCAA ACAGGATTAG ATACCCTGGT AGTCCACGCC GTAAACGATG AGTGCTAAGT GTTAGGGGGT TTCCGCCCCT TAGTGCTGCA GCTAACGCAT TAAGCACTCC GCCTGGGGAG TACGACCGCA AGGTTGAAAC TCAAAGGAAT TGACGGGGAC CCGCACAAGC GGTGGAGCAT GTGGTTTAAT TCGAAGCAAC GCGAAGAACC TTACCAAATC TTGACATCCT TTGACCGCTC TAGAGATAGA GTCTTCCCCT TCGGGGGACA AAGTGACAGG TGGTGCATGG TTGTCGTCAG CTCGTGTCGT GAGATGTTGG GTTAAGTCCC GCAACGAGCG CAACCCTTAA GCTTAGTTGC CATCATTAAG TTGGGCACTC TAAGTTGACT GCCGGTGACA AACCGGAGGA AGGTGGGGAT GACGTCAAAT CATCATGCCC CTTATGATTT GGGCTACACA CGTGCTACAA TGGACAATAC AAAGGGCAGC TAAACCGCGA GGTCAAGCAA ATCCCATAAA GTTGTTCTCA GTTCGGATTG TAGTCTGCAA CTCGACTACA TGAAGCTGGA ATCGCTAGTA ATCGTAGATC AGCATGCTAC GGTGAATACG TTCCCGGGTC TTGTACACAC CGCCCGTCAC ACCA 1323 bp, 100% to Lactobacillus reuteri SEQ ID No.: 16 AGTGGCGGAC GGGTGAGTAA CACGTAGGTA ACCTGCCCCG GAGCGGGGGA TAACATTTGG AAACAGATGC TAATACCGCA TAACAACAAA AGCCACATGG CTTTTGTTTG AAAGATGGCT TTGGCTATCA CTCTGGGATG GACCTGCGGT GCATTAGCTA GTTGGTAAGG TAACGGCTTA CCAAGGCGAT GATGCATAGC CGAGTTGAGA GACTGATCGG CCACAATGGA ACTGAGACAC GGTCCATACT CCTACGGGAG GCAGCAGTAG GGAATCTTCC ACAATGGGCG CAAGCCTGAT GGAGCAACAC CGCGTGAGTG AAGAAGGGTT TCGGCTCGTA AAGCTCTGTT GTTGGAGAAG AACGTGCGTG AGAGTAACTG TTCACGCAGT GACGGTATCC AACCAGAAAG TCACGGCTAA CTACGTGCCA GCAGCCGCGG TAATACGTAG GTGGCAAGCG TTATCCGGAT TTATTGGGCG TAAAGCGAGC GCAGGCGGTT GCTTAGGTCT GATGTGAAAG CCTTCGGCTT AACCGAAGAA GTGCATCGGA AACCGGGCGA CTTGAGTGCA GAAGAGGACA GTGGAACTCC ATGTGTAGCG GTGGAATGCG TAGATATATG GAAGAACACC AGTGGCGAAG GCGGCTGTCT GGTCTGCAAC TGACGCTGAG GCTCGAAAGC ATGGGTAGCG AACAGGATTA GATACCCTGG TAGTCCATGC CGTAAACGAT GAGTGCTAGG TGTTGGAGGG TTTCCGCCCT TCAGTGCCGG AGCTAACGCA TTAAGCACTC CGCCTGGGGA GTACGACCGC AAGGTTGAAA CTCAAAGGAA TTGACGGGGG CCCGCACAAG CGGTGGAGCA TGTGGTTTAA TTCGAAGCTA CGCGAAGAAC CTTACCAGGT CTTGACATCT TGCGCTAACC TTAGAGATAA GGCGTTCCCT TCGGGGACGC AATGACAGGT GGTGCATGGT CGTCGTCAGC TCGTGTCGTG AGATGTTGGG TTAAGTCCCG CAACGAGCGC AACCCTTGTT ACTAGTTGCC AGCATTAAGT TGGGCACTCT AGTGAGACTG CCGGTGACAA ACCGGAGGAA GGTGGGGACG ACGTCAGATC ATCATGCCCC TTATGACCTG GGCTACACAC GTGCTACAAT GGACGGTACA ACGAGTCGCA AGCTCGCGAG AGTAAGCTAA TCTCTTAAAG CCGTTCTCAG TTCGGACTGT AGGCTGCAAC TCGCCTACAC GAAGTCGGAA TCGCTAGTAA TCGCGGATCA GCATGCCGCG GTGAATACGT TCCCGGGCCT TGTACACACC GCCCGTCACA CCA 1323 bp, 100% Enterococcus hirae SEQ ID No.: 17 AGTGGCGAAC GGGTGAGTAA CACGTGGGTA ACCTGCCCAT CAGAAGGGGA TAACACTTGG AAACAGGTGC TAATACCGTA TAACAATCGA AACCGCATGG TTTCGATTTG AAAGGCGCTT TCGGGTGTCG CTGATGGATG GACCCGCGGT GCATTAGCTA GTTGGTGAGG TAACGGCTCA CCAAGGCGAC GATGCATAGC CGACCTGAGA GGGTGATCGG CCACATTGGG ACTGAGACAC GGCCCAAACT CCTACGGGAG GCAGCAGTAG GGAATCTTCG GCAATGGACG AAAGTCTGAC CGAGCAACGC CGCGTGAGTG AAGAAGGTTT TCGGATCGTA AAACTCTGTT GTTAGAGAAG AACAAGGATG AGAGTAACTG TTCATCCCTT GACGGTATCT AACCAGAAAG CCACGGCTAA CTACGTGCCA GCAGCCGCGG TAATACGTAG GTGGCAAGCG TTGTCCGGAT TTATTGGGCG TAAAGCGAGC GCAGGCGGTT TCTTAAGTCT GATGTGAAAG CCCCCGGCTC AACCGGGGAG GGTCATTGGA AACTGGGAGA CTTGAGTGCA GAAGAGGAGA GTGGAATTCC ATGTGTAGCG GTGAAATGCG TAGATATATG GAGGAACACC AGTGGCGAAG GCGGCTCTCT GGTCTGTAAC TGACGCTGAG GCTCGAAAGC GTGGGGAGCA AACAGGATTA GATACCCTGG TAGTCCACGC CGTAAACGAT GAGTGCTAAG TGTTGGAGGG TTTCCGCCCT TCAGTGCTGC AGCTAACGCA TTAAGCACTC CGCCTGGGGA GTACGACCGC AAGGTTGAAA CTCAAAGGAA TTGACGGGGG CCCGCACAAG CGGTGGAGCA TGTGGTTTAA TTCGAAGCAA CGCGAAGAAC CTTACCAGGT CTTGACATCC TTTGACCACT CTAGAGATAG AGCTTCCCCT TCGGGGGCAA AGTGACAGGT GGTGCATGGT TGTCGTCAGC TCGTGTCGTG AGATGTTGGG TTAAGTCCCG CAACGAGCGC AACCCTTATT GTTAGTTGCC ATCATTCAGT TGGGCACTCT AGCAAGACTG CCGGTGACAA ACCGGAGGAA GGTGGGGATG ACGTCAAATC ATCATGCCCC TTATGACCTG GGCTACACAC GTGCTACAAT GGGAAGTACA ACGAGTCGCA AAGTCGCGAG GCTAAGCTAA TCTCTTAAAG CTTCTCTCAG TTCGGATTGT AGGCTGCAAC TCGCCTACAT GAAGCCGGAA TCGCTAGTAA TCGCGGATCA GCACGCCGCG GTGAATACGT TCCCGGGCCT TGTACACACC GCCCGTCACA CCA 1308 bp (87% to Barnesiella intestinihominis) SEQ ID No.: 18 ACCGGCGCAC GGGTGAGTAA CACGTATGCA ACCTGCCCTC TTCAGGGGGA CAACCTTCCG AAAGGGAGGC TAATCCCGCG TATATCGGTT TCGGGCATCC GTTATCGAGG AAAGATTCAT CGGAAGAGGA TGGGCATGCG GCGCATTAGC TTGACGGCGG GGTAACGGCC CACCGTGGCG ACGATGCGTA GGGGTTCTGA GAGGAAGGTC CCCCACACTG GTACTGAGAC ACGGACCAGA CTCCTACGGG AGGCAGCAGT GAGGAATATT GGTCAATGGG AGAGATCCTG AACCAGCCAA GCCGCGTGAG GGAAGACGGC CCTATGGGTT GTAAACCTCT TTTGTCGGAG AACAAAACCC GGGACGAGTC CCGGACTGCG TGTATCCGAA GAAAAAGCAT CGGCTAACTC CGTGCCAGCA GCCGCGGTAA TACGGAGGAT GCGAGCGTTA TCCGGATTTA TTGGGTTTAA AGGGTGCGTA GGCGGTCCGT TAAGTCAGCG GTAAAATTGC GGGGCTCAAC CCCGTCGAGC CGTTGAAACT GGCAGACTTG AGTTGGCGAG AAGTACGCGG AATGCGCGGT GTAGCGGTGA AATGCATAGA TATCGCGCAG AACTCCGATT GCGAAGGCAG CGTACCGGCG CCAGACTGAC GCTGAGGCAC GAAAGCGTGG GGATCGAACA GGATTAGATA CCCTGGTAGT CCACGCAGTA AACGATGAAT GCTAGGTGTC CGGGTCGAAT GAGACCTGGG CGGCGAAGCG AAAGCGATAA GCATTCCACC TGGGGAGTAC GCCGGCAACG GTGAAACTCA AAGGAATTGA CGGGGGCCCG CACAAGCGGA GGAACATGTG GTTTAATTCG ATGATACGCG AGGAACCTTA CCCGGGCTCA AACGGGAGTG GAATGGACCA GAGACGGTTC AGCCTACGGG CCGCTTCCGA GGTGCTGCAT GGTTGTCGTC AGCTCGTGCC GTGAGGTGTC GGCTTAAGTG CCATAACGAG CGCAACCCCC GCCGGCAGTT GCTAACGGGC AATGCCGAGG ACTCTGCCGG GACTGCCGCC GCAAGGCGTG AGGAAGGCGG GGATGACGTC AAATCAGCAC GGCCCTTACG TCCGGGGCGA CACACGTGTT ACAATGGGCG GTACAGCGGG AAGCCAGGCG GCGACGCCGA GCGGAACCCG AAAGCCGTTC TCAGTTCGGA TCGGAGTCTG CAACCCGACT CCGTGAAGCT GGATTCGCTA GTAATCGCGC ATCAGCCATG GCGCGGTGAA TACGTTCCCG GGCCTTGTAC ACACCGCCCG TCAAGCCA

In one embodiment, the individual isolates identified in the resulting cultured suspension are assessed in combinations to identify subsets of the cultured suspension for use in, or suitable for use in, bacteriotherapy. Suitability of a bacterial isolate for bacteriotherapy may be assessed by administration of the isolates or groups of isolates to the recipient and measuring a shift in the recipients' microbiota to a composition similar to that of a healthy microbiota. The shift in recipients' microbiota is linked to increase in species diversity which can be measured by calculating the Shannon Diversity Index described in the example below.

In one embodiment, bacterial isolates suitable for bacteriotherapy according to any previous aspect can be identified by in vivo assessment, for example in an animal model, such as a mouse model, or in a human challenge model with an intestinal phase. In one embodiment, bacterial isolates suitable for bacteriotherapy according to any previous aspect can be identified by assessment of the UTI tract. Such identified isolates can be sequenced as described herein to determine speciation and phylogenetic position.

In one embodiment, the bacterial isolates are initially identified according to a method described above while the actual isolates used for bacteriotherapy are previously characterized isolates of the identified isolates. The previously characterized isolates may be obtained from a biobank of previously identified bacteria assessed to be suitable for bacteriotherapy using the procedures described herein. Restoration of a healthy microbiota with bacteriotherapy is viewed as a promising alternative treatment for recurrent C. difficile disease and other forms of intestinal dysbiosis but it is not widely used because of the time required to identify a suitable donor, the risk of introducing opportunistic pathogens as well as a general patient aversion. The inventors have demonstrated that it is also possible to eradicate C. difficile disease and contagiousness using a simple mixture of defined, culturable, components of the microbiota.

The material collected from a host may be fecal material or material obtained by biopsy or sampling from the gut of the host. The material may be from the intended recipient of bacteriotherapy prior to the need for bacteriotherapy or from a healthy donor. The donor may be a spouse or a member of the bacteriotherapy recipient's immediate family. A healthy donor for the purpose of this invention is an individual not suffering from an infection, such as C. difficile infection, resulting in decreased hetrogenity of intestinal flora.

In one embodiment, the prepared suspension is administered to the recipient or used for identification of bacterial strains within 10 minutes to 2 hours after preparation. In one embodiment the prepared suspension is administered or used within about 30 minutes after preparation. In one embodiment, no more than 6 hours should have elapsed between material collection and administration to the recipient or identification of bacterial strains.

In one embodiment, the cultured suspension or subset thereof comprises a spore forming bacteria.

Addition of an activator of bacterial spores sufficient to allow growth of bacteria from spores is an embodiment of the methods according to the invention. The activator may be a cholate derivative or may comprise one or more cholate derivatives such as taurocholate and/or glycocholate. In one embodiment the activator may comprise a cholate derivative, such as taurocholate, and glycine.

An activator of bacterial spores is expected to stimulate metabolically dormant spores to begin growth. Therefore, addition of an activator of bacterial spores to the medium increases the chances of isolating such fastidious bacteria from the sample.

The invention also relates to a group of bacterial isolates suitable for bacteriotherapy obtainable or identifiable by the method of any of the previously described aspects.

The group may comprise 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 bacterial isolates. In one embodiment, the group comprises 4, 5 or 6 bacterial isolates. In one embodiment, the group comprises 6 bacterial isolates. In one embodiment, the group comprises no more than 6 bacterial strains. In one embodiment, the group comprises at least 4 bacterial strains.

The group of bacterial isolates may comprise one or more of the following: Barnesiella intestinihominis, Lactobacillus reuteri, Enterococcus hirae/faecium/durans, Anaerostipes caccae/Clostridium indolis, Staphylococcus warneri/pasteuri, Adlercreutzia equolifaciens, Anaerostipes caccae/Clostridium indolis, Staphylococcus warneri/pasteuri and Barnesiella intestinihominis. In one embodiment, the group of bacterial isolates comprises Barnesiella intestinihominis, Lactobacillus reuteri, Enterococcus hirae/faecium/durans, Anaerostipes caccae/Clostridium indolis and Staphylococcus warneri/pasteuri. In one embodiment, the group of bacterial isolates comprises Staphylococcus warneri, Enterococcus hirae, Lactobacillus reuteri, Anaerostipes sp., Bacteroidetes sp. and Enterorhabdus sp. In one embodiment, the group of bacterial isolates comprises or consists 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, such as 5 or 6, of these isolates. In one embodiment the group of bacterial isolates comprises or consists of 4, 5 or 6 isolates and includes Enterococcus hirae, Lactobacillus reuteri, and Bacteroidetes sp. In one embodiment the group of bacterial isolates comprises or consists of 4, 5 or 6 isolates and includes members of the phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes optionally with members of the phyla Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria.

In another aspect, the invention provides a composition comprising or consisting essentially of a group of bacterial isolates according to any of the previous aspects. The composition is suitable for providing bacteriotherapy.

In one aspect, the group of bacterial isolates or composition according to the invention is for use in bacteriotherapy.

In one aspect, the invention provides a subset of bacteria obtainable or identifiable from fecal material for use in bacteriotherapy wherein the subset comprises 3 to 9, such as 4 to 6, such as no more than 6, isolates of bacteria.

In one aspect, the invention relates to a method of providing bacteriotherapy, the method comprising delivering to a human or non-human animal a group of bacterial isolates or a composition according to any aspect of the invention.

In one aspect, the invention provides use of a group of bacterial isolates according to the invention in the manufacture of a medicament for providing bacteriotherapy. In one embodiment no more 6 bacterial strains are used in the preparation of the medicament.

In one aspect, the invention provides aerobically cultured fecal material for use in bacteriotherapy, and/or for identification of bacterial isolates suitable for use in bacteriotherapy.

Bacteriotherapy refers to the use of a mixture of bacteria to resolve a pathological imbalance within the microbiota of an individual. The mixture may be a mixture of live bacteria obtained from an external source (other human, animal, in vitro culture etc.). In the context of this invention bacteriotherapy may also refer to increasing species diversity of the colonic flora by introducing healthy bacterial flora into a recipient. Healthy bacterial flora refers to heterogeneous intestinal flora such as that present in an individual not suffering from a bacterial infection, such as C. difficile infection, resulting in decreased heterogeneity of intestinal flora. The bacteriotherapy may be to facilitate repopulation of the gut with healthy bacterial flora and/or to prevent or treat bacterial or viral infections, or diseases related thereto, and/or to prevent the transmission of bacterial or viral infection.

The bacteriotherapy may be for the prevention or treatment of any disorder influenced by micobiota, such as intestinal disorders. In one embodiment the bacteriotherapy may be for the treatment a C. difficile bacterial infection or prevention of transmission of C. difficile. In one embodiment the bacteriotherapy may be for the treatment C. Difficile syndromes such as recurrent diarrhea, colitis, pseudomembranous colitis. The bacteriotherapy may be for the treatment of intestinal diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease or irritable bowel syndrome. Further, bacteriotherapy can be used to treat obesity. Because the gut micriobiota in obese individuals is different from non-obese individuals, and because gut micriobiota influences energy metabolism, displacing the gut micriobiota of an obese individual with the guy micriobiota of a non-obese individual. In one embodiment the bacteriotherapy may be for restoring intestinal flora disrupted by antibiotic treatment.

The bacterial isolates, medicaments or compositions according to the invention may be delivered by means of a gastro-resistant capsule (e.g., acid-bio resistant to reach the intestinal tract, having a sterile outside) an enteric tube, duodenal tube, nasogastric tube or colonoscope. Capsules may be prepared by techniques such as microencapsulation described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,733,568.

Treatments or specific processes can be applied to improve the stability or viability of the bacterial isolates in the composition. The bacterial isolates can be applied in a dry form or in a wet from. The bacterial isolates may be lyophilized.

The compositions may comprise a dose demonstrated to have a physiological effect, such as between 104 and 1011 colony forming units (CFU) per g of the dry composition. In one embodiment, the composition comprises between 106 and 5×1011 CFU/g.

The bacterial isolates or medicaments according to the invention may be provided at a dose of 1-50 g/day, such as 5, 10, 15, 20 or 25 g/day.

Bacteriothepary according to the invention may be combined with other treatments. The other treatment can include antibiotic treatment, such as with antimicrobials including metronidazole, vancomycin or rifamycin, and treatment with immunoglobulins. In an example, bacteriotherapy to treat C. difficile or one or more other diseases or afflictions of the digestive tract can be provided using a combination of antibiotics and/or antacid and re-population of a healthy or desired bacterial flora.

In one aspect, a kit of parts can be created to aid in the methods of the invention. The donation kit can include equipment for collection of material from the host. Because much of gut micriobiota is anaerobic, many organisms can die with exposure to air. In an example, the kit can include materials to ship the collected material without harming the samples (e.g., quick freeze, dry ice, etc.). The kit may include the processed material or treatment in a sterile container, such as a nasogastric (NG) tube, a vial (e.g., for use with a retention enema), a gastro-resistant capsule (e.g., acid-bio resistant to reach the intestinal tract, having a sterile outside), etc.

Recipients of bacteriotherapy according to the invention may be humans or non-human animals.

It will be understood that particular aspects and embodiments described herein are shown by way of illustration and not as limitations of the invention. The principal features of this invention can be employed in various embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine study, numerous equivalents to the specific procedures described herein. Such equivalents are considered to be within the scope of this invention and are covered by the claims. All publications and patent applications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art to which this invention pertains. All publications and patent applications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. The use of the word “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with the term “comprising” in the claims and/or the specification may mean “one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,” and “one or more than one.” The use of the term “or” in the claims is used to mean “and/or” unless explicitly indicated to refer to alternatives only or the alternatives are mutually exclusive, although the disclosure supports a definition that refers to only alternatives and “and/or.” Throughout this application, the term “about” is used to indicate that a value includes the inherent variation of error for the device, the method being employed to determine the value, or the variation that exists among the study subjects.

As used in this specification and claim(s), the words “comprising” (and any form of comprising, such as “comprise” and “comprises”), “having” (and any form of having, such as “have” and “has”), “including” (and any form of including, such as “includes” and “include”) or “containing” (and any form of containing, such as “contains” and “contain”) are inclusive or open-ended and do not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. In one aspect such open ended terms also comprise within their scope a restricted or closed definition, for example such as “consisting essentially of”, or “consisting of”. The term “or combinations thereof” as used herein refers to all permutations and combinations of the listed items preceding the term. For example, “A, B, C, or combinations thereof is intended to include at least one of: A, B, C, AB, AC, BC, or ABC, and if order is important in a particular context, also BA, CA, CB, CBA, BCA, ACB, BAC, or CAB. Continuing with this example, expressly included are combinations that contain repeats of one or more item or term, such as BB, AAA, AB, BBC, AAABCCCC, CBBAAA, CABABB, and so forth. The skilled artisan will understand that typically there is no limit on the number of items or terms in any combination, unless otherwise apparent from the context.

All of the compositions and/or methods disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the compositions and/or methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims. All documents referred to herein are incorporated by reference to the fullest extent permissible. Any element of a disclosure is explicitly contemplated in combination with any other element of a disclosure, unless otherwise apparent from the context of the application.

The present invention is further described by reference to the following examples, not limiting upon the present invention.

Example

Rational Design of a Simple, Defined Bacteriotherapy that Cures Clostridium difficile Disease

SUMMARY

Recurrent Clostridium difficile disease in humans is associated with a pathological imbalance within the resident intestinal microbiota, referred to as dysbiosis. We show that infection of mice with epidemic C. difficile (genotype 027/BI) resulted in chronic intestinal disease that was associated with persistent dysbiosis and a highly contagious state. Epidemic C. difficile 027/BI infection was refractory to vancomycin treatment, resulting in recurrent disease. In contrast, treatment of C. difficile 027/BI infected mice with feces from healthy mice rapidly eradicated C. difficile by restoring a diverse, healthy microbiota leading to the resolution of disease and contagiousness. We used this model to design a simple mixture of six phylogenetically diverse intestinal bacteria, including novel species, which can re-establish a health-associated microbiota and eradicate C. difficile 027/BI from infected mice as effectively as whole fecal transplants. Thus, we demonstrate a rational approach to harness the therapeutic potential of health-associated microbial communities and to refine bacteriotherapy-based treatments for C. difficile disease and potentially other forms of intestinal dysbiosis.

During the past decade a distinct genetic variant of C. difficile, genotyped as PCR-ribotype 027 or REA group BI, emerged and caused healthcare-associated epidemics within North America, Europe, Australia and beyond (7, 8). Epidemic C. difficile 027/BI is associated with high-level toxin production (9) (FIG. 5) severe disease and high rates of recurrence (10, 11). Here we show that infection of C57BL/6 mice with a representative epidemic C. difficile 027/BI (strain BI-7) isolate (8) resulted in chronic intestinal disease that was characterized by a pathological inflammatory response (FIG. 1a and FIG. 6). C. difficile 027/BI infected mice were also characterized by a highly contagious state (>108 CFU C. difficile/gram feces), which we refer to as a “persisting supershedder” state, that lasted for months (FIG. 1b ). In comparison, infection of mice with other variants of human virulent C. difficile, including PCR-ribotypes 012 (strain 630) and 017 (strain M68) (8), resulted in self-limiting intestinal disease and a transient contagious state (FIG. 1b ) (12, 13). Indeed, the co-housing of mice infected with C. difficile 027/BI-7, 017/M68 or 012/630 together with naïve mice for 30 days resulted in the majority (86%) of naïve mice becoming infected with epidemic C. difficile 027/BI-7 (FIG. 1c ). Therefore, the ability of epidemic C. difficile 027/BI-7 to induce chronic intestinal disease and a persistent supershedder state provides a competitive advantage over other variants within a susceptible host population.

Vancomycin treatment of C. difficile 027/BI persistent supershedders rapidly suppressed C. difficile excretion to below the culture detection limit (FIG. 2a ), as expected because C. difficile 027/BI-7 is susceptible to vancomycin. However, cessation of vancomycin treatment was followed within 5-7 days by a relapse (by the same strain) to high-level C. difficile shedding (>108 CFU/gram) in all mice (n=120) (FIG. 2a ). Relapse occurred even after mice were moved to individual sterile cages to reduce host-to-host transmission and re-colonization by environmental spores. The relapsing supershedder state caused by C. difficile 027/BI was very robust since it occurred in mice of different genetic backgrounds (Table 1). Thus, we show for the first time that natural infection of mice with epidemic C. difficile 027/BI mimics many aspects of recurrent disease and host-to-host transmission observed in humans.

Fecal bacteriotherapy, the administration of homogenized feces from a healthy donor, has been investigated as an alternative therapy for recurrent C. difficile disease in humans (6, 14). Therefore, we tested the ability of fecal bacteriotherapy to suppress the C. difficile 027/BI supershedder state in mice. A single oral treatment of C. difficile 027/BI-7 supershedding mice with homogenized feces from a healthy donor rapidly (4-7 days) and robustly (23 of 25 attempts) suppressed C. difficile shedding levels to below culture detection limits and, in contrast to vancomycin therapy, this lasted for months (FIG. 2a ). In comparison, treatment of supershedders with PBS, autoclaved feces, fecal filtrate, short chain fatty acids or laboratory E. coli had a negligible effect on C. difficile shedding levels (FIGS. 9A-9F). Importantly, suppression of C. difficile shedding levels using feces from healthy mice was consistently associated with a complete loss of contagiousness (FIG. 2b ), a resolution of intestinal pathology and a reduced expression of proinflammatory genes (FIG. 2c ).

We hypothesized that the persistent supershedder state caused by C. difficile 027/BI-7 is linked to intestinal dysbiosis, which is resolved by health-associated bacteria present within fecal transplants. Therefore, we performed species-level profiling of the intestinal microbiota of mice (based on the 16S rRNA gene) and demonstrated that distinct microbiota profiles are indeed associated with either “healthy/naïve” mice, “persistent supershedders” or mice undergoing “clindamycin treatment” (FIG. 3a ). The microbiota of healthy mice was characterized by high species diversity (data not shown) whereas during clindamycin treatment of naïve mice the microbiota was simplified in composition and had an increased proportional abundance of groups such as Enterobacteriaceae (data not shown). The microbiota from persistent C. difficile 027/BI-7 supershedders was also simplified in structure (FIG. 7B), however, it consistently contained 16S rRNA gene sequences derived from C. difficile and Blautia producta and regularly generated 16S rRNA gene sequences representative of well known opportunistic pathogens that have been identified within the microbiota of humans with C. difficile disease (4, 15), including Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Parabacteroides distasonis and Enterococcus faecalis (Table 1, FIG. 7A, and FIG. 8). In addition, the microbiota-derived metabolic profile of persistent supershedder mice was significantly altered compared to healthy mice (data not shown). Significantly, we could reproducibly transplant the supershedder microbiota into germ-free mice and the supershedder microbiota structure was maintained, leading to intestinal pathology and a highly contagious state (data not shown), Therefore, C. difficile 027/BI supershedders harbor a stable, persistent and dysbiotic intestinal microbiota.

Next we monitored changes in the supershedders' microbiota after fecal bacteriotherapy. Suppression of C. difficile shedding levels was associated with a shift in the recipients' supershedder microbiota to a composition similar to that of a healthy microbiota (FIG. 3a ) and this was closely linked to a rapid increase in species diversity (FIG. 10A-10C and FIGS. 11A-11B). Consequently, we reasoned that there are key bacteria within the microbiota of healthy mice that are responsible for suppressing the C. difficile 027/BI supershedder state. To identify candidate bacteria we passaged healthy feces overnight in nutrient broth at 37° C. to reduce the community complexity (FIG. 12) and to enrich for readily culturable bacteria. Treatment of supershedder mice with cultured fecal derivatives serially passaged twice (Passage 1 and 2) effectively suppressed the supershedder state (FIG. 12) and shifted their microbiota composition towards a healthy microbiota profile (FIG. 3a ). However, a third passage (Passage 3) resulted in a loss of the protective effects of the fecal derivative against the C. difficile 027/BI supershedder state. These results confirm the presence of culturable bacteria within the microbiota of healthy mice that can suppress C. difficile 027/BI infection as effectively as whole fecal bacteriotherapy.

Next, we cultured a diverse collection of 18 bacterial species from the Passage 1 fecal derivative, including representatives of the four phyla that constitute the majority of the mammalian intestinal microbiota (Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria; Table 2). Then we performed a series of reductive analysis experiments in persistent supershedder mice testing different combinations of bacteria while maximizing the phylogenetic diversity in each mixture (mixtures summarized in table 2). Ultimately we identified a simple, defined mixture of six bacteria that effectively and reproducibly (20/20 mice) suppressed the C. difficile 027/BI supershedder state (“MixB”; FIG. 3b ). Significantly, treatment of supershedders with the MixB bacteria shifted the recipients' intestinal microbiota to the profile of a healthy profile (FIG. 3a ) and triggered an increase in bacterial diversity that was associated with resolution of intestinal disease and contagiousness (FIG. 3c ). Analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences derived from treated mice confirmed the presence of four of the six MixB bacteria in the feces during days 6-14 post-treatment (Table 1). Much of the increased diversity, however, was derived from commensal bacteria that were still present at low levels pre-treatment (Table 1), suggesting that the MixB bacteria had disrupted colonization by C. difficile 027/BI and the other members of the supershedder microbiota, triggering an expansion of the suppressed health-associated bacteria and a re-distribution of the microbiota to a healthy composition.

Cholate derivatives (i.e. Taurocholate and glycocholate) stimulate metabolically dormant spores to begin growth. Therefore addition of cholate-derivatives to the medium increases the chances of isolating such fastidious bacteria from the sample. This is how we identified one of the six MixB bacteria (Anaerostipes).

Significantly, and in contrast to the results with MixB, treatment of C. difficile 027/BI supershedder mice with further subdivisions of this bacterial mixture, including the MixB bacteria administered individually, or mixtures containing six or seven other cultured bacterial strains had a negligible impact on the supershedder state (FIG. 3b ). To further illustrate the particular effectiveness of our MixB collection of strains, treatment of supershedders with a Bacteroides/Lactobacillus mixture, representative of more traditional probiotic bacterial groups (16, 17), failed to resolve the supershedder state and restore the recipients' microbiota to a healthy profile (FIG. 3a and FIG. 12). Thus, we rationally defined a novel, simple mixture consisting of six readily culturable intestinal bacterial strains that can cure C. difficile 027/BI infection in mice.

To gain insight into the genetic composition and fully define the identity of the six bacterial strains present in MixB (Table 2) we sequenced their genomes (and their closest equivalent human-derived species) and performed a phylogenetic comparison to reference intestinal bacterial genomes representative of the mammalian microbiota (FIG. 4 and Table 4). Based on this analysis we determined that MixB includes three previously described species, Staphylococcus warneri, Enterococcus hirae, Lactobacillus reuteri, and three novel species, Anaerostipes sp. nov., Bacteroidetes sp. nov. and Enterorhabdus sp. nov. (Table 2). This mix of bacteria is therefore phylogenetically diverse, including both obligate and facultative anaerobic species, and represents three of the four predominant intestinal microbiota phyla. Importantly, none of these species are known to be overtly pathogenic, they appear to be common inhabitants of the mouse intestine in health and they are phylogenetically distinct from the dominant members of the supershedder microbiota (FIG. 4). Given the demonstrated ineffectiveness of autoclaved feces, fecal filtrates, SFCAs and individual bacterial strains it therefore appears that displacement of C. difficile and the supershedder microbiota may require competition from a phylogenetically diverse and physiologically distinct collection of living bacteria.

In conclusion, we demonstrate that epidemic C. difficile 027/BI can out compete health-associated bacteria to enhance the contagious period of the host, increasing its likelihood of infecting a susceptible host. Restoration of a healthy microbiota with bacteriotherapy is viewed as a promising alternative treatment for recurrent C. difficile disease and other forms of intestinal dysbiosis (6, 14), but it is not widely used because of the time required to identify a suitable donor, the risk of introducing opportunistic pathogens as well as a general patient aversion (18). For the first time we demonstrate that it is also possible to eradicate C. difficile disease and contagiousness using a simple mixture of defined, culturable, components of the microbiota. Thus, our results open the way to rationally harness the therapeutic potential of health-associated microbial communities to treat recurrent C. difficile disease and transmission in humans, and potentially other forms of disease-associated dysbiosis.

FIGS. 1A-1C. Epidemic C. difficile 027/BI induces a persisting supershedder state with enhanced transmissibility compared to other virulent variants. FIG. 1A) i-ii) hematoxylin and eosin staining to compare cecal pathology of i) healthy, clindamycin treated mice to ii) persistent C. difficile 027/BI-7 supershedders (day 49 post-infection; C57BL/6) that display signs of hyperplasia, edema and immune cell filtrate. Scale bars represent 100 μm. FIG. 1B) Representative fecal shedding patterns from C57BL/6 mice (n=5 mice per group) simultaneously treated with clindamycin and exposed to human virulent C. difficile spores to mimic natural transmission. Mice were infected with C. difficile ribotype 027 (strain BI-7; n=300), 017 (strain M68; n=240) and 012 (strain 630; n=50). Mice supershedding high-levels of C. difficile (>108 CFU/gram fresh feces) are highly contagious (i and iii) whereas mice shedding low-levels of C. difficile (ii; <102 CFU/gram fresh feces) are non-contagious. Broken horizontal line indicates culture detection limit. In the results in this figure, the top line in the graph which does not meet the broken horizontal line at any point represents C. difficile ribotype 027 results. The middle line which meets the broken horizontal line between day 25 and 30 on the X axis represents C. difficile ribotype 017 results. The line closest to the Y axis which meets the broken horizontal line around day 20 on the X axis represents C. difficile ribotype 012 results. FIG. 1C) C. difficile 027/BI-7 outcompetes C. difficile 012/R and 017/CF within susceptible host populations. Shown is the summary of two independent experiments where 3 infected donor mice were housed with 7 naïve recipient mice for 30 days in each experiment. The transmission rate of C. difficile 027/BI-7 is significantly different (p<1.1e-4) compared to that of C. difficile 012/630 (p<0.02) and 017/M68 (p<0.22).

FIGS. 2A-2C. Fecal bacteriotherapy resolves relapsing C. difficile 027/BI-7 disease and host contagiousness. FIG. 2A) C. difficile shedding patterns from mice (average from 5 mice/cage) demonstrating that C. difficile 027/BI infection is refractory to vancomycin treatment (van) and results in a relapsing supershedder state. Bacteriotherapy suppresses high-level C. difficile 027/BI-7 shedding (brown) whereas PBS administration had no impact on shedding levels (black). FIG. 2B) Supershedder mice efficiently transmit C. difficile to naïve mice whereas mice treated with feces and transformed to carriers become poor donors of infection to naïve mice. Transmission efficiency refers to the percentage of naïve recipient mice (n=10/group) that became infected with C. difficile 027/BI-7. FIG. 2C) Quantitative RT-PCR of RNA extracted from supershedder mice cecal tissue showing high-level expression of the proinflammatory genes IL-6, iNOS and Ly6G, which were suppressed to levels comparable to naïve mice after bacteriotherapy. Cytokine expression was normalized to Gapdh and is shown as relative values.

FIGS. 3A-3C. Effective bacteriotherapy re-establishes a healthy, diverse microbiota profile in epidemic C. difficile 027/BI supershedder mice. FIG. 3A) Principal component analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences demonstrates that distinct microbiota profiles (circled) are associated with “healthy/naïve” mice, mice undergoing “clindamycin treatment” and “persisting supershedders” of C. difficile 027/BI-7. PC1 and PC2 account for 38% of the variation. Each symbol represents one microbiota (dot) or treatment (star) community. Treatment of supershedder mice with feces from healthy mice, the cultured fecal derivative or mixtures of defined, cultured bacteria are as indicated: brown—shading for healthy feces, blue—shading for fecal derivatives culture passaged once, green—shading for mixture of six suppressive bacteria (MixB) and grey—shading for Bacteroides/Lactobacillus mixture. The symbol representing the Bacteroides/Lactobacillus treatment is based on culturing counts and modified to reflect the relative abundance of each organism in the mixture. Next to the shading: pre=pre-treatment; 3=3 days post-treatment; 4=4 days post-treatment; 6=6 days post-treatment; 14=14 days post-treatment. Grey background arrows indicate the shifts in the microbiota profiles of treated mice over a 14-day period. FIG. 3B) Fecal shedding profiles from supershedder mice (n=5/group) that were treated with MixA, MixB or MixC (Table 2). In the results in this figure, the top line in the graph represents Mix C results; the middle line in the graph represents Mix A results; The line closest to the Y axis which meets the broken horizontal line around day 15 represents Mix B results. FIG. 3C) Shannon Diversity Indices of the intestinal microbiota of supershedders pre- and post-treatment (day 3, 6 and 14) with MixB and that of the corresponding input community.

FIG. 4. Whole genome (Maximum likelihood) phylogeny of intestinal bacteria demonstrating the phylogenetic placement of protective bacteriotherapy bacteria (MixB) and the dominant members of the supershedder microbiota. Maximum likelihood phylogeny produced using FastTree from the concatenated protein sequence of 44 common genes (See methods). Species names marked in green indicate members of the suppressive MixB mixture, names marked in red indicate species that were commonly detected in the feces of supershedding mice, names in black are reference genomes from common intestinal bacteria that were included to provide phylogenetic context to the tree. Taxonomic designations are given at the relevant branch nodes. Adjacent pictures are transmission electron micrographs of sectioned bacterial strains that constitute MixB. Methods for sample processing and imaging have been described (13). Scale bars are shown below bacteria.

REFERENCES

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FIG. 5. Toxin A production by C. difficile 027/BI-7, 012/630 and 017/M68. C. difficile 027/BI produced TcdA at 200.3 ng/μl, C. difficile 630/012 produced TcdA at 21.5 ng/μl and C. difficile M68/017 does not produce TcdA. Data are from 3 independent experiments with triplicate determinants in each.

FIG. 6. C. difficile supershedders are highly contagious. Donor mice (from FIG. 1) infected with the indicated C. difficile variant were housed for 1 hour in sterile cages without bedding and then feces was removed and cages were left overnight so that only spore contamination remained. The next day naïve recipient mice were aseptically placed in cages for 1 hour and then aseptically removed and housed individually in sterile cages and given clindamycin in their drinking water. After 4 days the recipient mice were sampled to determine if they were infected with C. difficile. The transmission efficiency represents the percentage of recipient mice that became infected with C. difficile. Experiments were repeated at least twice and included 10 recipient mice per experiment. n.d=not determined.

FIGS. 7A-7B. Distinct intestinal microbiota community structures from healthy/naïve mice (n=17), clindamycin supershedders (C. difficile 027/BI-7 infected mice on clindamycin; n=10) and persisting supershedders (C. difficile 027/BI-7 infected mice not on clindamycin; n=17). FIG. 7A) Plot illustrating the percentage of C. difficile 16S rRNA gene clones in libraries of healthy/naïve mice (n=4,926 clones), clindamycin supershedders (n=4,433 clones) and persisting supershedders (n=2,956 clones). FIG. 7B) Comparison of Shannon Diversity Index for the intestinal microbiota of healthy/naïve mice, clindamycin supershedders and persisting supershedders. Wilcoxon rank sum test was used to compare differences between groups.

FIG. 8. Opportunistic pathogens routinely cultured from the feces of epidemic C. difficile 027/BI supershedder mice. Bacteria were identified as described in the Methods section and are shown here streaked onto a UTI diagnostic agar plate (Oxoid, Cambridge, UK).

FIGS. 9A-9F. Impact of various oral treatments on epidemic C. difficile 027/BI supershedder state in mice. Fecal shedding profile from supershedder mice (n=5/group) that were treated with feces or fecal derivatives. Standard treatments with FIG. 9A) feces and FIG. 9B) PBS are the same as in FIG. 2. The following treatments were administered into supershedder mice via oral gavage with a 200 μl volume. FIG. 9C) Equivalent feces was autoclaved using standard conditions and then resuspended in sterile PBS for a final concentration of 100 mg/ml. FIG. 9D) To produce fecal filtrate, feces was homogenized in sterile PBS at a concentration of 100 mg/ml and then centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 10 minutes to separate the bacteria/particulate matter from the soluble fraction which was then filtered through a 0.22 μm filter. This was referred to as the fecal filtrate. FIG. 9E) SCFA indicates a mixture of acetate:propionate:butyrate in a ratio of 6:1:2 at a concentration of 100 mM that was at pH 6.5. FIG. 9F) Lab adapted E. coli strain C600 (nalidixic acid resistant) was gavaged into mice at a dose of 108 CFU. E. coli colonization was confirmed by culturing feces of supershedder mice. The broken horizontal line indicates the detection limit.

FIGS. 10A-10C. Fecal bacteriotherapy suppresses C. difficile intestinal colonization and diversifies the intestinal bacterial community of supershedder mice. FIG. 10A) High-level excretion of C. difficile is rapidly suppressed after oral inoculation of supershedder mice with homogenized feces from a healthy mouse (input feces). Plotted line represents average shedding levels of 5 mice and error bars indicate standard deviation. Black vertical arrow indicates day 58 when healthy feces was administered and arrowheads indicate the times when fecal DNA was extracted for 16S rRNA gene analysis. FIG. 10B) Composition of intestinal bacterial community of supershedder mice (n=2) shifts to reflect that from the healthy donor mouse after bacteriotherapy. FIG. 10C) Diversity of intestinal microbiota of supershedder mice increases after bacteriotherapy.

FIGS. 11A-11B. Simplified fecal derivatives enriched for easily culturable components effectively suppress the epidemic C. difficile supershedder 027/BI state in mice. FIG. 11A) Fecal shedding profiles from supershedder mice (n=5/group) that were treated with healthy feces, a Bacteroides/Lactobacillus mixture (Bacteroides acidifaciens, Bacteroides vulgatus, Lactobacillus murinus and Lactobacillus reuteri), feces cultured in Wilkins-Chalgren Anaerobic broth at 37 C either aerobically or anaerobically. Pie charts illustrate the composition of the input treatments based on 16S rRNA gene clone libraries for healthy feces, aerobic passaged and anaerobic passaged inputs or based on culturing for the Bacteroides/Lactobacillus mixture. FIG. 11B) Shannon Diversity Indices of the intestinal microbiota of supershedders pre- and post-treatment (day 3, 4, 6 and 14) and that of the corresponding input community.

FIG. 12. Rarefaction curves demonstrating observed bacterial diversity of feces from healthy, naïve mice and its serially passaged derivatives. In addition, the Chao1 calculator estimated the total community diversity (OTU defined at 98% similarity) for the healthy feces as 142 phylotypes (95% confidence interval 105-225), passage 1 as 30 phylotypes (95% confidence interval 27-46), passage 2 as 6 phylotypes (95% confidence interval 5-18) and passage 3 as 4 phylotypes (95% confidence interval 4-4). Together, these results demonstrate that serial passage of healthy feces in nutrient broth progressively reduced the complexity of the bacterial community.

FIGS. 13A-13C. Effective bacteriotherapy re-establishes a healthy, diverse microbiota profile in epidemic C. difficile 027/BI supershedder. FIG. 13A) Fecal shedding profiles from supershedder mice (n=5/group) that were treated with MixA, MixB or MixC. FIG. 13B) Bacteria. FIG. 13C) Shannon Diversity Indices of the intestinal microbiota of supershedders pre- and post-treatment (day 3, 6 and 14) with MixB and that of the corresponding input community.

Methods

Bacterial Culturing.

C. difficile strains BI-7 (genotype 027/BI; clindamycinR, thiamphenicolR, erythromycinS), M68 (genotype 017/CF; clindamycinR, thiamphenicolS, erythromycinS) and 630 (genotype 012/R; clindamycinR, thiamphenicolS, erythromycinR) have been described (1, 2). Culturing of C. difficile for infections and from feces was described previously (1). To isolate the intestinal bacteria from mouse feces or passaged fecal derivatives, the samples were serially diluted in sterile PBS, plated on a panel of nutrient agar plates; Luria Bertani, Brain Heart Infusion, Man Rogosa Sharpe, Fastidious anaerobic media, Columbia base media supplemented with 10% defribrinated horse blood, Wilkins-Chalgren anaerobic media (all media from Becton, Dickinson, Oxford, UK) and grown either aerobically or anaerobically at 37 C for 24-72 hours. Distinct colony types were isolated, culture purified and genomic DNA was isolated to sequence the 16S rRNA gene using broad range primers as described in the microbiota section below. 16S rRNA gene sequences were compared to the GenBank and RDP databases to identify the bacterial species.

TcdA ELISA.

C. difficile cultures were grown in Wilson's broth (1) with shaking for 30 h, pelleted by centrifugation and supernatant was removed for TcdA quantification. Microtitre plates (96 well) were coated with capture antibody by adding 50 μl/well of a 2 μg/ml solution of anti-TcdA (TGCBiomics GmbH, Mainz, Germany) in PBS, and incubating overnight at 4° C. Plates were then washed three times in 0.05% Tween20 in PBS (PBS-T) and blocked with 200 μl 1% BSA (bovine serum albumin) in PBS for 2 h at room temperature. Purified TcdA from C. difficile strain VPI10463 (TGCBiomics GmbH, Mainz, Germany) was diluted in 1% BSA-PBS (50 μl/well) and used to construct a standard curve. Culture filtrates were diluted as above in order to generate readings within the linear range of the standard curve. Plates were then incubated at room temperature for 2 h, followed by washing in PBS-T as above. The detection antibody (rabbit anti-Clostridium difficile toxin A; antibodies-online GmbH, Aachen, Germany) was diluted 1:5000 in 1% BSA-PBS, added to wells (50 μl/well) and incubated for 2 h at room temperature. After washing, polyclonal swine anti-rabbit IgG conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (Dako, Cambridgeshire, UK) was diluted 1:1000 in 1% BSA-PBS, added to the wells (50 μl/well) and incubated for 2 h at room temperature. Finally, plates were washed and 100 μl 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB; Sigma Aldrich, Dorset, UK) substrate was added for 30 min at room temperature in the dark. 50 μl 0.5 M H2504 was added to stop the reaction. Absorbance was then measured at 450 nm on a FLUOStar Omega (BMG Labtech, Bucks, UK).

Mouse Infections.

Female mice between 5-9 weeks of age and from the genetic backgrounds C57BL/6, C57BL/6 p40−/−, C3H/HeN and C3H/HeJ were routinely used. Mice to be used as C. difficile spore donors were infected with 105 C. difficile cells via oral gavage and immediately clindamycin (250 mg/L; Apollo Scientific Ltd, Chesire, UK) was added to the drinking water for 1 week to induce high-level spore excretion. To infect experimental mice, one petri dish of contaminated bedding was removed from spore donor cages, placed into recipient mice cages and clindamycin (250 mg/L) was added to the drinking water for 1 week to induce the supershedder phenotype. To infect germ-free C3H/HeN mice, the feces of supershedder mice was collected, diluted in serial PBS and inoculated into mice via oral gavage. To suppress infection, vancomycin (300 mg/L; Sigma Aldrich, York, UK) was added to the drinking water for 10 days. To assess impact of infection, mice were sacrificed at indicated times and cecal tissue was aseptically collected and fixed for pathology as described (1), or fixed for RNA extractions by immersing samples in RNA-later (Applied Biosystems, Warrington, UK).

Bacteriotherapy Treatment.

To prepare input for bacteriotherapy, 1 gram of fresh feces was collected from 5 naïve mice, homogenized in 5 ml of sterile PBS and centrifuged for 30 seconds at 14,000 RPM to pellet the particulate matter. The supernatant slurry was collected and 200 μl was gavaged into each mouse within 30 minutes of excretion. To create the defined bacterial mixtures, individual bacteria were grown in Wilkins-Chalgren broth (Lactobacillus in Man Rogosa Sharpe broth) for 48-72 hours under anaerobic conditions at 37 C. Bacteria were harvested by centrifugation and re-suspending the pellet in 2 mls of sterile, pre-reduced PBS. Approximately 1010 of each bacterium was gavaged into each mouse in a 200 μl volume. To passage healthy feces, two fecal pellets (˜50 mg) were collected aseptically and immediately placed into 20 ml of Wilkins-Chalgren Anaerobic broth or Luria broth that was pre-warmed to 37 C under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Fecal pellets were physically disrupted within the broth using a sterile pipette tip and subsequently incubated standing for 16 hours. For serial passage, 200 μl of the fecal derivative was inoculated into fresh broth and grown as described. For inoculations, the 20 ml cultures were pelleted and then resuspended into 2 ml of sterile PBS pre-warmed to 37 C under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Based on visual counts, approximately 4×108 (anaerobic passage) and 8×108 (aerobic passage) bacteria were gavaged into each mouse in a 200 μl volume.

Microarrays.

RNA purification from cecal mucosal tissue was performed using a Qiagen RNeasy mini kit (Qiagen, Austin, Tex., USA) according to the manufacturer's protocol. Quality control and quantification were performed using Bioanalyzer 2100 (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, Calif., USA) and Nanodrop ND100 (Nanodrop Technologies, Wilminton, Del.). RNA samples were then amplified and labelled using the Illumina TotalPrep 96 kit (Ambion, Austin, Tex., USA) and hybridized onto Illumina™ Mouse WG-6-V2 Beadchips (Illumina, San Diego, Calif., USA). The chips were scanned on an Illumina BeadArray Reader and raw intensities were extracted using Illumina BeadStudio Gene Expression Module.

Normalization and analysis of the microarrays were performed using GeneSpring X software (Agilent Technologies, Berkshire, UK). Normalization procedures utilized were quantile normalization and median of all samples baseline correction. For each comparison, differentially expressed genes were defined as having a fold change 2 and a FDR (false discovery rate) corrected p-value 0.05. Adjusted p-values were calculated using the Benjamini and Hochberg method (3).

RT-PCR.

Quantitative expression analysis was performed by real-time TaqMan RT-PCR on the ABI PRISM 7900HT Sequence Detection System (Applied Biosystems, Warrington, UK) as described previously (4). Expression of IL-6, iNOS and Ly6G was normalized to Gapdh mRNA. TaqMan primers and probes were designed to span exon junctions or to lie in different exons to prevent amplification of genomic DNA, as described (4). Primer and probe sequences are shown in Table 3. Probes were labelled with the reporter dye FAM at the 5′- and the quencher dye TAMRA at the 3′-end.

Transmission Experiments.

Protocols to test the contagiousness of infected donors (supershedders or carriers) have been described (1). To compare the contagiousness of different C. difficile strains mice infected with either C. difficile 012 (strain 630), 017 (strain M68) and 027 (strain BI-7) (immediately after cessation of 7 days of clindamycin treatment) were co-housed with 7 naïve recipient mice for 30 days. Experiments were repeated for a total of 14 naïve mice. To determine if recipient mice were infected with C. difficile they were individually placed (aseptically) in sterile cages for 3 days and given clindamycin in their drinking water for 4 days (1). Afterwards, feces was collected from individual mice and C. difficile enumerated by standard methods (1). Antibiotic resistance profiles were used to determine which C. difficile strain had infected mice.

Analysis of Microbiota.

Fecal DNA extraction, clone library construction and sequencing were carried out as described previously (1). Sequences were aligned using the RDP aligner (5) and these alignments were manually curated in the ARB package (6) before further analysis. Otherwise, sequences were checked and classified as described previously (7). In total 19,991 sequences were generated and these were deposited in GenBank (accession numbers JF241944-JF260864 and HE605382-HE608150).

The species diversity in each sample was measured by calculating the Shannon Diversity Index, which takes into account both species richness and relative proportional abundance (evenness), using the mothur software package (8). Rarefaction curves and Chao1 estimates of total bacterial diversity were also calculated in mothur (8).

Cluster dendrograms and PCA plots were based on a master alignment, which was built using the RDP aligner and subjected to manual curation. Using this alignment a distance matrix, with Felsenstein correction, was created using ARB. The distance matrix was then used as an input for DOTUR (9) using a 98% identity cut-off under the default furthest-neighbor setting. Sequences with >98% phylogenetic similarity were regarded as belonging to the same OTU. These OTUs were then used to calculate cluster dendrograms, using the Bray Curtis calculator, in the mothur package (8). 336 OTUs (12,308 clones) contributed to this analysis. Cluster dendrograms, with added bar charts showing the microbial composition of each sample and Shannon Diversity Indices, were visualized using the iTOL web package (10). For the PCA plot OTUs were generated as above but with a 97% identity cut-off. PCA decomposition was performed on the (symmetric) matrix of pairwise sample similarity, where the similarity metric was based on the sum of absolute differences in OTU frequency. 344 OTUs (16,154 clones) contributed to the analysis, which was insensitive to the removal of low frequency OTUs.

To determine the SCFA profile, the cecal contents from 5 mice per group were pooled and then resuspended in sterile PBS at a concentration of 500 mg/ml, homogenized and centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 10 minutes. Supernatant was collected, acidified and following conversion to t-butyldimethylsilyl derivatives were analyzed by gas chromatography (11).

Whole Genome Sequencing and Phylogenetic Analysis of Intestinal Bacteria.

We sequenced the genomes (and their closest equivalent human-derived species) using the MiSeq platform, and performed de novo assembly using Velvet {(12) and gene prediction using GLIMMER3 (13). We then identified the genes that were in common between the 6 MixB species, and reference intestinal bacterial genomes sourced from the MetaHIT project, the HGMI project, and the Human Microbiome Project (Tables 4 and 5). 44 Common genes were identified using TBLASTN (14) searches against the complete dataset of the reference and assembled genomes for 80 bacteria (Table 5). Although the “true” core genome amongst these samples may be higher—we were limited by the fact that in several cases only draft assemblies were available, and so some genes which may have been expected to be present in the “core” group, were in fact not present, due to their absence in one or more of the draft genome sequences used. A gene was classified as being ‘present’ if it had a minimum percent amino acid identity across the entire gene of 30% compared to the reference. The reference genes used for querying were taken from the strain of Staphylococcus warneri taken from MixB. The common genes so identified were manually checked, translated, extracted, and concatenated together. We then used FastTree 2.1 (15), with its default settings (BLOSUM45 and the Jones-Taylor-Thorton CAT model, with 20 rate categories), to generate a maximum likelihood phylogeny from the concatenated protein sequence, in order to place the bacteria into their correct context and to distinguish species.

REFERENCES

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TABLE 1 Summary of 16S rRNA gene clone library data used in this study. 19,991 sequences, generated from a total of 87 samples, were included in the study. Bacteriotherapy suppresses the Clostridium difficile supershedder state Phylum-Level Summary GenBank/ Shannon Diversity EMBL-Bank Mouse No. of S.D.I. S.D.I. RDP Classification at Phylum Level (% of total clones) Accession Info Genotype clones 99% 98% Firmicutes C. difficile Bacteroidetes Proteobacteria Actinobacteria Deferribacteres Uncl. Numbers Naïve mouse C57BL/6 231 4.14997 4.08776 63.2 0 33.3 0 0.9 2.6 0 JF241944- d 0 JF242174 M68 C57BL/6 248 2.1051 2.1051 77.8 20.6 0 22.2 0 0 0 JF242175- supershedder JF242422 day 17 post- infection (17 days clindamycin) M68 C57BL/6 213 2.18171 2.18171 74.2 22.1 0 25.8 0 0 0 JF242423- supershedder JF242635 day 20 post- infection M68 C57BL/6 246 3.38848 3.24137 58.5 0 34.1 6.9 0.4 0 0 JF242636- supershedder JF242881 day 49 post- infection Naïve mouse C57BL/6 227 4.21427 4.16541 64.3 0 35.2 0 0 0.4 0 JF242882- d 0 JF243108 M68 C57BL/6 245 2.02013 2.02013 80.8 28.2 0 19.2 0 0 0 JF243109- supershedder JF243353 day 17 post- infection (17 days clindamycin) M68 C57BL/6 236 2.25285 2.10025 77.5 17.8 0 22.5 0 0 0 JF243354- supershedder JF243589 day 20 post- infection M68 C57BL/6 258 3.46856 3.25321 53.5 0 36 9.7 0.8 0 0 JF243590- supershedder JF243847 day 49 post- infection Naïve mouse C57BL/6 244 3.91966 3.8975 52.9 0 45.5 0 0.4 1.2 0 JF243848- d 0 JF244091 M68 C57BL/6 246 1.87254 1.77443 47.2 20.3 0.4 52.4 0 0 0 JF244092- supershedder JF244337 day 17 post- infection (17 days clindamycin) M68 C57BL/6 253 2.30345 2.16097 71.9 26.5 0 28.1 0 0 0 JF244338- supershedder JF244590 day 20 post- infection M68 C57BL/6 271 1.74011 1.65221 70.8 15.5 0 29.2 0 0 0 JF244591- supershedder JF244861 day 49 post- infection Naïve mouse C57BL/6 231 3.79986 3.63532 51.5 0 47.6 0 0.9 0 0 JF244862- d 0 JF245092 M68 C57BL/6 229 1.98981 1.98981 58.1 24.5 0 41.9 0 0 0 JF245093- supershedder JF245321 day 17 post- infection (17 days clindamycin) M68 C57BL/6 223 2.07725 2.01554 73.5 39.9 0 26.5 0 0 0 JF245322- supershedder JF245544 day 20 post- infection M68 C57BL/6 236 1.88852 1.8704 63.1 11.4 0 36.9 0 0 0 JF245545- supershedder JF245780 day 49 post- infection BI-7 C57BL/6 228 3.56975 3.54283 37.3 0 57.9 3.5 0 0.9 0.4 JF245781- supershedder JF246008 6 days post- bacteriotherapy (feces) BI-7 C57BL/6 183 3.55612 3.55612 49.7 0 49.7 0 0 0 0.5 JF246009- supershedder JF246191 6 days post- bacteriotherapy (feces) BI-7 C57BL/6 198 3.82148 3.731 48 0 48.5 1.5 1.5 0.5 0 JF246192- supershedder JF246389 14 days post- bacteriotherapy (feces) BI-7 C57BL/6 236 3.51724 3.49493 37.3 0 59.3 1.7 0.4 0.8 0.4 JF246390- supershedder JF246625 14 days post- bacteriotherapy (feces) Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 234 3.19332 3.19332 57.3 0 39.7 2.1 0.9 0 0 JF246626- Day −2 JF246859 Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 252 3.5617 3.51119 71 0 27 1.2 0.8 0 0 JF246860- Day 7 JF247111 Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 241 3.33 3.33 58.5 0 40.2 0.4 0 0.8 0 JF247112- Day 49 JF247352 Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 238 3.3436 3.3436 51.3 0 48.3 0 0.4 0 0 JF247353- Day −2 JF247590 Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 263 3.58141 3.52961 46.4 0 49.8 1.5 2.3 0 0 JF247591- Day 7 JF247853 Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 234 3.43067 3.43067 42.3 0 57.7 0 0 0 0 JF247854- Day 49 JF248087 Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 231 3.81317 3.81317 63.2 0 33.3 2.2 0.9 0.4 0 JF248088- pre clindamycin JF248318 Clindamycin C57BL/6 256 2.03355 1.86828 77.3 0 0 22.7 0 0 0 JF248319- treated - Day 7 JF248574 Clindamycin C57BL/6 229 3.74052 3.674 94.3 0 5.7 0 0 0 0 JF248575- treated - Day 49 JF248803 Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 249 2.93131 2.87491 50.2 0 49.8 0 0 0 0 JF248804- pre clindamycin JF249052 Clindamycin C57BL/6 228 1.56548 1.56548 53.9 0 0 46.1 0 0 0 JF249053- treated - Day 7 JF249280 Clindamycin C57BL/6 222 3.63564 3.5173 90.1 0 8.6 0.9 0.5 0 0 JF249281- treated - Day 49 JF249502 Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 227 3.4708 3.4708 43.2 0 56.4 0 0.4 0 0 JF249503- pre clindamycin/ JF249729 C. diff BI-7 C57BL/6 246 1.40816 1.04058 34.1 31.7 0 65.9 0 0 0 JF249730- supershedder JF249975 day 7 post- infection BI-7 C57BL/6 251 1.59185 1.59185 50.6 12 46.6 2.8 0 0 0 JF249976- supershedder JF250226 day 49 post- infection Naïve mouse - C57BL/6 192 3.51133 3.44958 39.6 0 59.4 1 0 0 0 JF250227- pre clindamycin/ JF250418 C. diff BI-7 C57BL/6 257 1.29546 1.29546 54.5 35 0 45.5 0 0 0 JF250419- supershedder JF250675 day 7 post- infection BI-7 C57BL/6 229 2.03132 1.8842 30.6 4.4 64.2 5.2 0 0 0 JF250676- supershedder JF250904 day 49 post- infection BI-7 C3H/HeN 231 1.94559 1.52807 42 1.3 55 3 0 0 0 JF250905 - supershedder JF251135 day 49 post- infection BI-7 C3H/HeN 246 1.77284 1.36087 36.2 0.4 61 2.8 0 0 0 JF251136- supershedder JF251381 day 49 post- infection Clindamycin C3H/HeN 233 4.03206 3.93299 73.8 0 26.2 0 0 0 0 JF251382- treated 7 days JF251614 and recovered 42 days - Day 49 Clindamycin C3H/HeN 232 3.52201 3.44376 55.6 0 44.4 0 0 0 0 JF251615- treated 7 days JF251846 and recovered 42 days - Day 49 Naïve mouse - C3H/HeN 240 3.72625 3.71829 50 0 49.2 0.4 0 0.4 0 JF251847- Day 49 JF252086 Naïve mouse - C3H/HeN 221 3.38237 3.38237 24.4 0 69.7 0 0 5.9 0 JF252087- Day 49 JF252307 Feces from C57BL/6 240 3.68282 3.65063 37.1 0 62.1 0 0.8 0 0 JF252308- healthy donor JF252547 mouse/source of cultured fecal samples Aerobic culture C57BL/6 219 2.77561 2.44051 54.8 0 29.7 15.1 0.5 0 0 JF252548- of sample JF252766 16sms225 BI-7 C57BL/6 238 2.31896 2.31896 87.4 13.45 0 12.6 0 0 0 JF254466- supershedder JF254703 pre- bacteriotherapy (aerobic BI-7 C57BL/6 232 3.24385 3.04048 26.3 0 68.5 3.9 1.3 0 0 JF254704- supershedder JF254935 6 days post- bacteriotherapy (aerobic culture) BI-7 C57BL/6 238 3.36589 3.20486 30.7 0 66.8 2.1 0.4 0 0 JF254936- supershedder JF255173 14 days post- bacteriotherapy (aerobic culture) BI-7 C57BL/6 215 2.33625 2.30886 75.8 20.93 24.2 0 0 0 0 JF255174- supershedder pre- JF255388 bacteriotherapy (aerobic culture) BI-7 C57BL/6 238 3.13471 3.00441 16.4 0 80.7 2.5 0.4 0 0 JF255389- supershedder JF255626 6 days post- bacteriotherapy (aerobic culture) BI-7 C57BL/6 236 3.07781 2.93903 35.2 0 61 3.8 0 0 0 JF255627 - supershedder JF255862 14 days post- bacteriotherapy (aerobic culture) BI-7 C57BL/6 250 1.62768 1.62768 83.2 14 0 16.8 0 0 0 JF255863 - supershedder pre- JF256112 bacteriotherapy (Bac/Lac mix) BI-7 C57BL/6 216 1.62933 1.6085 35.2 3.7 58.3 6.5 0 0 0 JF256113- supershedder JF256328 6 days post- bacteriotherapy (Bac/Lac mix) BI-7 C57BL/6 211 1.79599 1.78694 31.3 0.5 66.8 1.9 0 0 0 JF256329- supershedder JF256539 14 days post- bacteriotherapy (Bac/Lac mix) Supershedder pre- C57BL/6 210 1.84808 1.80343 77.6 15.2 0 22.4 0 0 0 JF256540- bacteriotherapy JF256749 (Bac/Lac mix) BI-7 C57BL/6 235 1.60486 1.60486 50.2 3.4 48.1 1.7 0 0 0 JF256750- supershedder JF256984 6 days post- bacteriotherapy (Bac/Lac mix) BI-7 C57BL/6 237 1.9682 1.9682 40.5 1.7 57.8 1.7 0 0 0 JF256985- supershedder JF257221 14 days post- bacteriotherapy (Bac/Lac mix) BI-7 C3J/HeJ 78 1.43267 1.43267 52.6 16.7 42.3 5.1 0 0 0 JF257222- supershedder JF257299 day 49 post- infection BI-7 C3H/HeJ 88 1.96344 1.49214 34.1 9.1 50 15.9 0 0 0 JF257300- supershedder JF257387 day 49 post- infection BI-7 C3H/HeN 252 1.98776 1.70844 57.1 9.5 39.7 3.2 0 0 0 JF257388- supershedder JF257639 day 49 post- infection BI-7 C57BL/6 258 2.58617 2.23557 40.7 4.7 57.4 1.9 0 0 0 JF257640- supershedder JF257897 day 49 post- infection BI-7 carrier C57BL/6 231 3.29611 3.27958 73.2 0 26.4 0.4 0 0 0 JF257898- day 49 post- JF258128 infection BI-7 carrier C57BL/6 213 3.24006 3.20816 54.5 0 45.5 0 0 0 0 JF258129- day 49 post- JF258341 infection BI-7 carrier C57BL/6 209 3.15434 3.13857 57.4 0 42.6 0 0 0 0 JF258342- day 49 post- JF258550 infection BI-7 C57BL/6 223 2.15049 1.6202 46.6 4 52.9 0.4 0 0 0 JF258551- supershedder JF258773 day 49 post- infection BI-7 C57BL/6 224 1.65811 1.65811 45.5 4.5 51.3 3.1 0 0 0 JF258774- supershedder p40−/− JF258997 day 49 post- infection BI-7 C57BL/6 301 2.19324 1.98225 36.9 2.7 62.1 1 0 0 0 JF258998- supershedder p40−/− JF259298 day 49 post- infection Input Feces for C57BL/6 223 3.93654 3.8962 43.5 0 53.8 0.4 0 1.8 0.4 JF259299- bacteriotherapy JF259521 BI-7 C57BL/6 244 2.50776 2.31929 46.7 3.3 52 1.2 0 0 0 JF259522- supershedder pre- JF259765 bacteriotherapy (feces) BI-7 C57BL/6 245 2.41999 2.12256 42.4 2.4 56.7 0.8 0 0 0 JF259766- supershedder pre- JF260010 bacteriotherapy (feces) BI-7 C57BL/6 242 3.15804 3.11079 49.6 0.4 47.5 1.7 0 0.8 0.4 JF260011- supershedder JF260252 3 days post- bacteriotherapy (feces) BI-7 C57BL/6 211 3.55141 3.54236 49.8 0 46 0 0 3.3 0.9 JF260253- supershedder JF260463 3 days post- bacteriotherapy (feces) BI-7 C57BL/6 207 3.77395 3.76309 38.6 0 51.7 6.8 0.5 0.5 1.9 JF260464- supershedder JF260670 4 days post- bacteriotherapy (feces) BI-7 C57BL/6 194 3.72324 3.72324 41.8 0 53.6 2.1 0 1 1.5 JF260671- supershedder JF260864 4 days post- bacteriotherapy (feces) SS - after two C57BL/6 203 1.99917 1.99917 90.1 16.7 0 9.9 0 0 0 HE605382- courses of HE605584 Vancomycin SS - persisting C57BL/6 210 1.71892 1.70296 39 4.3 56.2 4.8 0 0 0 HE605585- for months HE605794 SS - after two C57BL/6 210 1.82721 1.82721 92.4 7.6 0 7.6 0 0 0 HE605795- courses of HE606004 Vancomycin Supershedder C57BL/6 239 2.74342 2.74342 47.3 0.42 51 1.7 0 0 0 HE606005- (Prior to Mix B HE606243 treatment) Supershedder C57BL/6 210 2.64761 2.64761 58.6 1.43 41 0.5 0 0 0 HE606244- (Prior to Mix B HE606453 Treatment) TL90_Mix B C57BL/6 237 1.46435 1.46435 94.1 0 3.4 0 2.5 0 0 HE606454- Bacteriotherapy HE606690 Input Supershedder C57BL/6 261 2.74376 2.74376 43.3 0.38 53.6 2.7 0.4 0 0 HE606691- 4 days post HE606951 bacteriotherapy (Mix B) Supershedder C57BL/6 242 2.8643 2.8643 52.1 0 46.7 1.2 0 0 0 HE606952- 4 days post HE607193 bacteriotherapy (Mix B) Supershedder C57BL/6 259 3.1317 3.1317 52.5 0 45.2 2.3 0 0 0 HE607194- 6 days post HE607452 bacteriotherapy (Mix B) Supershedder C57BL/6 244 3.10992 3.09076 57.8 0.41 41.4 0.8 0 0 0 HE607453- 6 days post HE607696 bacteriotherapy (Mix B) Supershedder C57BL/6 235 3.03497 3.03497 45.1 0 52.8 1.3 0.9 0 0 HE607697- 14 days post HE607931 bacteriotherapy (Mix B) Supershedder C57BL/6 219 3.26271 3.21437 57.5 0 42 0.5 0 0 0 HE607932- 14 days post HE608150 bacteriotherapy (Mix B)

TABLE 2 Bacterial species solated from cultured fecal derivative. Species designation is based on the sequence of the 16S rRNA gene or Whole Genome Sequencing and comparative genomic using the genomes of intestinal bacteria. Mix Species based on 16S rRNA gene Genus Species based on WGS Phylum A Bacteroides acidifaciens Bacteroidetes A 16saw22-1a06.p1k, Barnesiella Bacteroidetes intestinihominis [87%] A Lactobacillus Firmicutes taiwanensis/gasseri/johnsonii A Flavonifractor plautii Firmicutes A R-7912, Turicibacter sanguinis (97%) Firmicutes A Bifidobacterium pseudolongum subsp. Actinobacteria globosum/pseudolongum A Escherichia coli Proteobacteria B 16saw22-1a06.p1k, Barnesiella Bacteroidetes novel species Bacteroidetes intestinihominis [87%] B Lactobacillus reuteri Lactobacillus reuteri Firmicutes B Enterococcus hirae/faecium/durans Enterococcus hirae Firmicutes B Anaerostipes caccae/Clostridium Anaerostipes novel species Firmicutes indolis B Staphylococcus warneri/pasteuri Staphylococcus warneri Firmicutes B WD3_aako2b03, Adlercreutzia Enterorhabdus novel species Actinobacteria equolifaciens (97%) C Parabacteroides distasonis Bacteroidetes C 16saw22-1a06.p1k, Barnesiella Bacteroidetes intestinihominis [87%] C Lactobacillus murinus/animalis Firmicutes C Enterococcus faecalis Firmicutes C Blautia producta Firmicutes C Propionibacterium acnes Actinobacteria C Acinetobacter lwoffii/baumannii Proteobacteria B1 WD3_aako2b03, Adlercreutzia Enterorhabdus novel species Actinobacteria equolifaciens (97%) B1 Anaerostipes caccae/Clostridium Anaerostipes novel species Firmicutes indolis B1 Staphylococcus warneri/pasteuri Staphylococcus warneri Firmicutes B2 16saw22-1a06.p1k, Barnesiella Bacteroidetes novel species Bacteroidetes intestinihominis [87%] B2 Lactobacillus reuteri Lactobacillus reuteri Firmicutes B2 Enterococcus hirae/faecium/durans Enterococcus hirae Firmicutes

TABLE 3 Primers used for RT-PCR experiments shown in FIG. 3. Primer name Sequence Gapdh F 5′-TGTGTCCGTCGTGGATCTGA-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 1) Gapdh R 5′-CACCACCTTCTTGATGTCATCATAC-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 2) Gapdh probe* 5′-TGCCGCCTGGAGAAACCTGCC-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 3) IL-6 F 5′-ACAAGTCGGAGGCTTAATTACACAT-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 4) IL-6 R 5′-TTGCCATTGCACAACTCTTTTC-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 5) IL-6 probe* 5′-TTCTCTGGGAAATCGTGGAAATG-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 6) iNOS F 5′-TGCATCGGCAGGATCCA-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 7) iNOS R 5′-AACATTTCCTGTGCTGTGCTACA-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 8) iNOS probe* 5′-CCTGCAGGTCTTTGACGCTCGGAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO.: 9) Ly6G F 5′-TGCCCCTTCTCTGATGGATT-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 10) Ly6G R 5′-TGCTCTTGACTTTGCTTCTGTGA-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 11) Ly6G probe* 5′-TGCGTTGCTCTGGAGATAGAAGTTAT TGTGGACT-3′ (SEQ ID No.: 12) *Probes were labeled with FAM (5′) and TAMRA (3′).

TABLE 4 Summary of data used whole genome phylogeny of intestinal bacteria presented in FIG. 4. Species Accession Number/link Proteus mirabilis am942759 Escherichia coli cp000802 Citrobacter rodentium fn543502 Enterobacter cloacae FP929040 Klebsiella pneumoniae ERS012055 Alistipes shahii FP929032 Bacteroidetes sp. nov. ERS084472 Parabacteroides distasonis cp000140 Bacteroides fragilis fq312004 Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron ae015928 Bacteroides xylanisolvens FP929033 Bacteroides vulgatus cp000139 Bacteroides dorei ftp://ftp.sanger.ac.uk/pub/pathogens/Bacteroides/ dorei/D8/improved/Bacteroides_dorei_D8.fasta Bifidobacterium ftp://ftp.sanger.ac.Uk/pub/pathogens/ pseudocatenulatum Bifidobacterium/pseudocatenulatum/D2CA/improved/ Bifidobacterium_pseudocatenulatum_D2CA.fasta Bifidobacterium bifidum cp001840 Bifidobacterium breve cp000303 Bifidobacterium longum cp000605 Atopobium parvulum cp001721 Enterorhabdus sp. nov. ERS084471 Enterorhabdus mucosicola ERS084484 Eggerthella lenta cp001726 Gordonibacter pamelaeae FP929047 Bacillus subtilis CM000488 Staphylococcus aureus FN433596 Staphylococcus haemolyticus AP006716 Staphylococcus epidermidis CP000029 Staphylococcus pasteuri ERS084477 Staphylococcus warneri ERS084483 Staphylococcus warneri ERS084478 Listeria monocytogenes CP001604 Lactobacillus casei CP000423 Lactobacillus rhamnosus FM179323 Lactobacillus fermentum CP002033 Lactobacillus reuteri ERS084469 Lactobacillus reuteri ERS084476 Lactobacillus reuteri AP007281 Lactobacillus brevis CP000416 Lactobacillus plantarum CP002222 Streptococcus thermophilus CP000023 Streptococcus gordonii CP000725 Enterococcus faecalis CP002491 Enterococcus durans ERS084475 Enterococcus faecium GG692468-GG692536 Enterococcus hirae ERS084482 Enterococcus hirae ERS084473 Enterococcus hirae ERS084474 Enterococcus casseliflavus ACAH00000000 Enterococcus gallinarum ACAJ00000000 Clostridium difficile FN545816 Clostridium bartletti ABEZ00000000 Clostridium botulinum CP000962 Clostridium cellulovorans CP002160 Clostridium acetobutylicum ae001437 Flavonifractor plautii SRS084527 Clostridium leptum ABCB00000000 Ruminococcus bromii FP929051 Eubacterium siraeum FP929044 Subdoligranulum variabile SRS010483 Faecalibacterium prausnitzii FP929045 Eubacterium hallii ftp://ftp.sanger.ac.uk/pub/pathogens/Eubacterium/ hallii/SM61/improved/Eubacterium_hallii_SM61.fasta Coprococcus catus FP929038 Anerostipes sp. nov. ERS084470 Anaerostipes caccae SRS211904 Clostridium hathewayi SRP006092 Clostridium clostridioforme SRP002711 Clostridium bolteae SRP002709 Clostridium aldenense SRP002708 Clostridium citroniae SRP003300 Clostridium indolis ERS084479 Clostridium saccharolyticum FP929037 Clostridium symbiosum SRP003488 Ruminococcus obeum FP929054 Blautia producta Blautia producta Blautia coccoides ERS084481 Ruminococcus torques FP929055 Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens FP929036 Eubacterium rectale FP929042 Roseburia intestinalis FP929049

TABLE 5 Genes selected Gene 30S ribosomal protein S1 30S ribosomal protein S10 30S ribosomal protein S13 30S ribosomal protein S14 type Z 30S ribosomal protein S16 30S ribosomal protein S17 30S ribosomal protein S19 30S ribosomal protein S3 30S ribosomal protein S5 30S ribosomal protein S7 30S ribosomal protein S8 50S ribosomal protein L1 50S ribosomal protein L11 50S ribosomal protein L14 50S ribosomal protein L15 50S ribosomal protein L16 50S ribosomal protein L18P 50S ribosomal protein L2 50S ribosomal protein L22 50S ribosomal protein L24 50S ribosomal protein L34 50S ribosomal protein L5 50S ribosomal protein L7/L12 adenylate kinase adenylosuccinate synthetase bacterial peptide chain release factor 2 D-methionine ABC transporter, ATP-binding protein DNA gyrase subunit B DNA primase Excinuclease ABC subunit B glutamine transport ATP-binding protein GlnQ GMP synthase heat shock protein GrpE Holliday junction DNA helicase RuvA KDP operon transcriptional regulatory protein KdpE L-cystine import ATP-binding protein TcyC methenyltetrahydrofolate cyclohydrolase phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase, alpha subunit polyribonucleotide nucleotidyltransferase Protein Translation Elongation Factor Ts (EF-Ts) transcription termination/antitermination factor NusG translation initiation factor IF-1 Triosephosphate isomerase YmdA/YtgF family protein 

1.-9. (canceled)
 10. A group of no more than 9 bacterial isolates suitable for bacteriotherapy obtainable or identifiable by a method for the identification of bacterial species suitable for use in bacteriotherapy, the method comprising: (i) preparing a culture of material collected from a host harbouring microbiota; (ii) detecting at least one bacterial species or a group of individual bacterial species within the culture of step (i) by genomic DNA sequencing, and isolating the at least one or group of detected individual bacterial species from the culture; (iii) assessing combinations of the at least one or a group of isolated detected individual species from step (ii) to identify combinations of at least one or a group of no more than 9 of the detected individual bacterial species for use in, or suitable for use in, bacteriotherapy by: (a) administering the combinations of the at least one or a group of isolated detected individual bacterial species to a human or non-human animal recipient and measuring a shift in the recipient's microbiota to that of a healthy microbiota, wherein an increase in species diversity indicates a shift to healthy microbiota, and/or (b) assessing the combinations of the at least one or a group of isolated detected individual bacterial species in an animal model to identify combinations that are able to alter host biology such as to resolve a pathology in vivo by altering resident intestinal microbiota composition; and (iv) selecting a combination of no more than 9 of the isolated detected individual bacterial species assessed in step (iii) that shifts the recipient's microbiota to that of a healthy microbiota by increasing species diversity, and/or resolves a pathology in vivo, for use in bacteriotherapy. 11.-17. (canceled)
 18. A method of for altering host biology such as to resolve a pathology or providing bacteriotherapy, the method comprising delivering to a human the group of claim
 1. 19.-23. (canceled)
 24. The group of claim 10, wherein the group of no more than 9 bacterial isolates are lyophilized.
 25. The group of claim 10, wherein the group of no more than 9 bacterial isolates are delivered by means of a gastro-resistant capsule.
 26. The group of claim 10, wherein the method comprises the step of culturing the material under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
 27. The group of claim 10, wherein the method comprises preparing a suspension of material collected from a host harbouring microbiota.
 28. The group of claim 27, wherein the method comprises a step of incubation of the suspension in a standing culture under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
 29. The group of claim 10, wherein the material collected from a host is fecal material or material obtained by biopsy or sampling from the gut of the host.
 30. The group of claim 29, wherein the fecal material is from the intended recipient of bacteriotherapy prior to the need for bacteriotherapy or from a healthy donor.
 31. The group of claim 10, wherein the material being cultured in step (i) is a first or a second passage of a fecal sample from the host.
 32. The group of claim 10, wherein the bacterial species suitable for use in bacteriotherapy comprises a spore forming bacteria.
 33. The group of claim 10, wherein the bacteriotherapy is for the treatment or prevention of recurrent diarrhea, colitis, pseudomembranous colitis, ulcerative colitis, pouchitis, antibiotic induced diarrhea, viral infection, obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome, or a C. difficile syndrome.
 34. The group of claim 10, wherein detecting of at least one bacterial species or a group of individual bacterial species within the culture according to step (ii) is by sequencing specific genes.
 35. The group of claim 10, wherein detecting of at least one bacterial species or a group of individual bacterial species within the culture according to step (ii) is by sequencing its 16S rRNA genes.
 36. The group of claim 10, wherein detecting of at least one bacterial species or a group of individual bacterial species within the culture according to step (ii) is by whole genome sequencing.
 37. The group of claim 10, wherein the method comprises addition of an activator of bacterial spores sufficient to allow growth of bacteria from spores.
 38. The method of claim 18, wherein the bacteriotherapy is for the treatment or prevention of a disease characterized by dysbiosis, optionally where the treatment is of a C. difficile syndrome.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the disease is recurrent diarrhoea, colitis, pseudomembranous colitis, ulcerative colitis, pouchitis, antibiotic induced diarrhea, viral infection, obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, or irritable bowel syndrome.
 40. The method of claim 38, wherein the treatment is of a C. difficile syndrome.
 41. The method of claim 18, wherein the group of no more than 9 bacterial isolates is delivered by means of a gastro-resistant capsule. 